Academic Skills Notes

Academic Skills Tasks

Year 1 Sem 1 : Aug - Nov, 2023 Tutor: Mrs. karma Cheki

This module aims to develop the knowledge and understanding of a range of academic skills required for study at university level. The module will enhance the learning throughout the studies at university and beyond, through close reading, discussions and critiquing of academic texts. Further, it will also enhance capacity to critically reflect on own learning.

An Overview of the Assessment Approaches and Weighting

Area of Assessment

1. Academic Essay

2. Oral Presentation

3. Portfolio

4. Class Test

5. VLE Discussion

Quantity

Weighting

30%

15%

25%

20%

10%

UNIT I: Academy Standards

Academic Integrity

"Integrity is doing the right thing, even when no one is watching"

Academic integrity means acting in a way that is honest, fair, respectful and responsible in your studies and academic work. It means applying these values in your own work, and also when you engage with the work and contributions of others.

Academic Dishonesty

According to the Wheel of Academic Law (2017, p. 85) at the Royal University of Bhutan (RUB), Academic Dishonesty is considered as one of the following:

Collusion: where students work together to complete an assessment that should be taken individually.
Commissioning: where another individual completes an assessment on behalf of a student.
Duplication: where a student submits the same paper for two different classes.
False Declaration: when you submit for assessment, you are declaring to the University that someone's work is your own.
Falsification of Data: intentional and unauthorized falsification or invention of any information or citation in an academic exercise.
Plagiarism: using another's words, ideas, materials or work without properly acknowledging and documenting the source.

A Preface from The Wheel of Academic Law at Royal University of Bhutan

The Wheel of Academic Law is the definitive compilation of policies, regulations and guidelines governing academic matters of the Royal University of Bhutan. It provides the framework for the conduct of the Royal University of Bhutan's academic activities and is intended to be a guide for the member colleges and institutes of the Royal University of Bhutan.

The Wheel is intended to provide a uniform direction for the operation of member colleges and institutes of the University. A further purpose of the academic regulations is to protect the academic standing of the University and the academic integrity of its awards, for the benefit of students and other stakeholders. All staff and students have the responsibility to be familiar with these regulations in order that they may be at all times informed and be in compliance with the academic requirements, rules and regulations.

It will also inform the general public on the structure, policy, regulations and procedures of the University.

The academic regulations should be read in conjunction with the individual member college's academic regulations as relevant.

Continuing efforts are made to update the University's academic regulations in order to enhance the quality of the University's programmes and the achievement of its educational goals. Likewise, new regulations are developed and implemented in accordance with planned changes to the University's academic structures. Amendments to existing regulations and new regulations are developed through approved processes of the University's Academic Board. Such changes will be updated regularly in the contents of the Wheel on the website of the University (http://www.rub.edu.bt/regulation).

Penalties Charged for Dishonesty in Academic

1. Mark Deduction

2. Punishment

3. Suspension

4. Expulsion

Extra Information on Intellectual Property

What is Intellectual Property?

Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the mind, such as inventions; literary and artistic works; designs; and symbols, names and images used in commerce.

IP is protected in law by, for example, patents, copyright and trademarks, which enable people to earn recognition or financial benefit from what they invent or create. By striking the right balance between the interests of innovators and the wider public interest, the IP system aims to foster an environment in which creativity and innovation can flourish.

Types of Intellectual Property

1. Patents: A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention. Generally speaking, a patent provides the patent owner with the right to decide how - or whether - the invention can be used by others. In exchange for this right, the patent owner makes technical information about the invention publicly available in the published patent document.

2. Copyright: Copyright is a legal term used to describe the rights that creators have over their literary and artistic works. Works covered by copyright range from books, music, paintings, sculpture and films, to computer programs, databases, advertisements, maps and technical drawings.

3. Trademarks: A trademark is a sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one enterprise from those of other enterprises. Trademarks date back to ancient times when artisans used to put their signature or "mark" on their products.

4. Industrial Designs: An industrial design constitutes the ornamental or aesthetic aspect of an article. A design may consist of three-dimensional features, such as the shape or surface of an article, or of two-dimensional features, such as patterns, lines or colour.

5. Geographical Indications: Geographical indications and appellations of origin are signs used on goods that have a specific geographical origin and possess qualities, a reputation or characteristics that are essentially attributable to that place of origin. Most commonly, a geographical indication includes the name of the place of origin of the goods.

6. Trade Secrets: Trade secrets are IP rights on confidential information which may be sold or licensed. The unauthorized acquisition, use or disclosure of such secret information in a manner contrary to honest commercial practices by others is regarded as an unfair practice and a violation of the trade secret protection.

UNIT II: Note-taking Methods

Note-Taking

Note-taking is the practice of writing down or otherwise recording key information points. It's an essential part of the research process. Notes taken during class lectures or discussions may serve as study aids, while notes taken during an interview may provide material for an essay, article, or book.

Benefits of Note-Taking

Taking notes is a valuable practice for individuals in various contexts. Here are the key benefits:

Active Engagement: Note-taking encourages active and critical engagement with the information at hand.
Enhanced Writing: It aids in the preparation of well-structured arguments and effective writing.
Customized Organization: Notes can be organized according to one's unique learning style, facilitating comprehension.
Improved Understanding: Converting complex concepts into one's own words enhances understanding.
Knowledge Retention: Notes help in retaining and expanding one's knowledge, contributing to better memory retention.
Time Management: By focusing on essential information, individuals can manage their time more efficiently.
Concise Reference: Notes serve as a condensed and convenient resource for future study and reference.
Progress Assessment: Regularly reviewing notes allows individuals to assess their progress and understanding of the material.

Tips to Take Note

When it comes to effective note-taking, following the 5 Rs can be a helpful guideline for anyone:

Record: Selectively capture the key concepts and information during a lecture or while studying.
Reduce: Create concise notes by using keywords and abbreviations, keeping the essence of the content.
Recite: After taking notes, read them back and recall the information to reinforce your understanding.
Reflect: Analyze the significance of the notes you've taken to gain a deeper understanding of the subject matter.
Review: Use your notes to prepare for exams, assignments, or presentations, ensuring that you have a comprehensive study resource at your disposal.

Types of Note-Taking Methods

1. Mind Map Method

When you take notes using the mind map method, it helps you think more creatively. This method involves using pictures, colours, symbols, arrows, and capital letters to organize information. It's like making a visual chart that shows how ideas are connected and what's important. People call it 'brain patterns' because it works like how our brain thinks, allowing us to deal with several ideas at once. Mind maps are also handy for picking ideas after brainstorming and, especially, for planning essays and studying for tests.

Advantages of the Mind Map:

User-Friendly: Suitable for learners of all age groups.
Stimulates Memory: The use of images and colours can enhance memory retention.
Conciseness: Encourages the use of fewer words, promoting a more concise representation of information.
Flexibility: It allows for the easy addition of new ideas and information.
Free Flow of Ideas: Supports the open-ended flow of ideas, making it useful for brainstorming.
Effective Revision: Its unique structure aids in the recall process during revision.

Disadvantages of the Mind Map:

Cluttered Appearance: If not structured well or if the right keywords aren't chosen, mind maps can appear cluttered.
Time and Skill Requirement: Becoming a proficient mind map user may require time, experience, and discipline.
Logical Consistency: Ensuring logical and consistent mapping can be challenging.
Complex Topics: Mind maps may become untidy and less effective when dealing with intricate or complex subjects.

Steps to Construct Mind Maps:

Start at the Center: Begin in the centre of the page with a keyword or phrase that represents the main subject. You can also visualize this as an image.
Radiating Lines: Use lines that extend outward from the central keyword or image in a radiating pattern. The lines closest to the centre can be thicker. On these extending lines, place keywords or phrases, each in its separate space, and ensure each line is the same length as the corresponding word or phrase.
Branching Off: Each line branching off from the central keyword represents a sub-concept or sub-level of detail. However, all extending lines should ultimately link back to the central core.
Use of Color: Incorporate at least three colours throughout the mind map. Each colour can represent a specific topic or sub-topic area within the mind map.
Images, Symbols, and Codes: Use images, symbols, and codes where relevant to enhance your mind map. These visual elements can contribute to your unique mind-mapping style.

Sample of Mind Map

2. The Outlining Method
The outlining method is a way to organize information hierarchically, with the most general information on the left and more specific details indented to the right. It's a visual way of showing relationships between different parts of content without using numbers or letters. It's commonly used in academic writing, reports, and presentations for clear and structured organization.

Advantages of Outlining:

Effective Organization: When executed accurately, it provides a well-structured system.
Content and Relationship Capture: It efficiently records both content and the connections between elements.
Reduced Editing: Minimizes the need for extensive post-writing editing.
Simplified Review: Easily transforms main points into questions for streamlined reviewing.

Disadvantages of Outlining:

Increased Classroom Focus: Precise organization demands more attention during lectures.
Sequential Relationships: May not consistently convey sequential relationships within the content.
Limited Review Approaches: Offers fewer options for diverse review techniques and question-based learning.
Unsuitable for Speedy Lectures: Not well-suited for fast-paced lecture settings.

When to Use The Outlining Method

Lecture Organization: The outline format is best utilized when the lecture follows a structured outline.
Time Consideration: Implement this method when there's ample time during the lecture to think through and make organizational decisions as needed.
Note-Taking Proficiency: The outlining format is most effective when your note-taking skills are advanced, and you are adept at outlining, regardless of the note-taking situation.
Structured Lectures: It is particularly beneficial for traditional courses where the lecture content is well-structured.
Less Structured Lectures: In cases of less structured lectures, the outline method can still be useful but may pose initial challenges when constructing the outline due to the lecture's unstructured nature.

Sample of Outlining Method

Listening

Listening means paying attention to what someone is saying. There are different ways to listen, and it can be influenced by various things.

Active Listening: This is when you pay full attention to the person talking. You might show this by leaning in and nodding your head to show you're interested.
Passive Listening: This is when you hear the words, but you're not really paying attention or getting any useful information. It's like just staring without really understanding.
Critical Listening: This is when you listen and think about what you're hearing. You analyze and make judgments about it.
Pseudo Listening: This is when you act like you're listening, but you're not really paying attention. It's like pretending to listen.
Empathetic Listening: In this kind of listening, you not only hear the words but also understand the feelings the person is expressing.
Therapeutic Listening: This is when someone shares their emotions or moods with you, often in a therapeutic or comforting context.
Assertive Listening: In assertive listening, you let the person express their thoughts or wishes without interrupting or judging them.
Biased Listening: This happens when you have preconceived ideas about the speaker, and it can affect how you understand what they're saying.

Barriers to Effective Listening:

Noise: When there's a lot of background noise, it's hard to hear and concentrate on the speaker.
Lack of Concentration or Focus: If your mind is wandering or you're not really paying attention, it's tough to listen effectively.
Lack of Interest: If you're not interested in what's being said, it can be hard to pay attention.
Not Audible: If the speaker is too quiet or not easy to hear, you won't be able to listen properly.
Mode of Communication: Different ways of communicating, like digital messages, may not show non-verbal cues, making it harder to understand.
Language: If you don't understand the language being used, it can be challenging to listen.
Behaviour of Speaker: The way the speaker acts, including their body language and how many people are speaking, can affect how you listen.
Bad Times for Listeners: Sometimes external factors like illness or tiredness can make it hard to listen well.
Biased (Judgmental Thoughts): If you have prejudiced thoughts about the speaker, it can affect how you understand what they're saying.

Indicators of Effective Listening:

Expression and Body Language: Your body language shows if you're interested or not.
Response: You can give relevant responses, showing you're paying attention.
Focus: If you're paying attention to what's being said, it means you're focused.
Active Participation: Engaging by asking questions or discussing shows active listening.
Eye Contact: Maintaining eye contact shows you're attentive.
Empathy: Understanding the speaker's emotions and perspective is a sign of effective listening.
Engaging in Discussion: If you join discussions or debates with the speaker, it means you're actively listening.
Avoiding Distractions: Effective listeners reduce distractions and stay focused on the speaker.

UNIT III: Academic Reading

Academic Reading

Academic reading serves a distinct educational purpose, differing from casual reading in its demand for specific reading strategies. It emphasizes the organization of information and critical reflection on topics, while also leveraging text features, graphics, and organizational aids to enhance the learning experience.

Various Text Features

Textual Feature

Italics/Bold Face: Highlight important terms or concepts; indicate glossary references.

Bullets/Numbering: Emphasize text sections; improve readability and highlight points.

Font/Coloured Print: Convey reading style and content importance to the reader.

Graphic Aids

Charts and Graphs: Illustrate specific points and present information visually for better understanding.

Diagrams and Sketches: Aid in understanding steps, object construction, or textual information.

Pictures: Assist in visualizing text and enhancing the narrative.

Maps and Timelines: Extend meaning, summarize events' locations, and provide chronological context.

Tables or Figures: Organize and represent various types of data for easy comprehension.

Cross-Sections: Visual explanations to enhance understanding of information.

Informational Aids

Captions: Highlight instances in images and their relevance to the text.

Boxed Information or Questions: Provide additional information and interesting facts not found in the text.

Organizational Aids

Titles: Provide a glimpse of the text's topic.

Headings: Chunk information and offer a preview of content.

Subheadings: Identify main topics within text sections, often presented as questions.

Table of Contents: Offer a roadmap of the text's structure, including chapters, page numbers, and titles.

Footnotes: Provide additional explanation for terms, names, or events.

Glossary: Summarize key terms and concepts, offering basic understanding.

Appendix: Offer additional information and supporting materials for reference.

Index: Alphabetical listing of subjects, people, and places/events covered in the text.

Effective Reading Ways

Don't Worry About Pronunciation: Effective readers don't get stuck on trying to pronounce a word perfectly. They focus on understanding its meaning within the context.
Adapt Reading Strategies: They use different reading strategies based on the type of material. For instance, they read textbooks slowly and attentively while approaching novels differently.
Read in Groups: They read words in groups, both aloud and silently, rather than one word at a time. This helps in processing information more efficiently.
Guess Unknown Words: When they encounter unfamiliar words, effective readers make educated guesses. They use context clues, surrounding information, and their general knowledge to deduce the word's meaning.
Minimize Dictionary Use: They rarely pause to look up words in a dictionary. Instead, they resort to dictionary reference only when they come across the same word repeatedly or when a word appears crucial to the text.
Continue Reading: Effective readers don't let unfamiliar words disrupt their reading flow. They continue reading, and if they lose the meaning, they may go back to reread and clarify.
No Worry About Reading Aloud: They don't feel pressured to read aloud as they understand that comprehension often improves when reading silently and at a quicker pace.

Types of Reading

Skimming

Skimming is the art of swiftly absorbing the overall essence of a passage. When skimming, one should avoid reading every word and instead focus on extracting key ideas.

When Skimming

Skip Text: In the skimming process, one should avoid reading every word in detail and instead skip over less relevant sections.
Focus on Keywords: Key words are the anchor points in skimming. They help identify critical information.
First and Last Sentences: Reading the first and last sentences of paragraphs can often provide a concise summary of the section's content.
Introduction and Summary: The introduction and summary sections are essential when skimming. They often encapsulate the main points.
Examples for Clarity: Sometimes, reading a few examples within the text can aid in understanding complex concepts.

How to Skim

Read the Title: The title provides the initial context for the text.
Read the Subtitle: Subtitles often give more specific information.
First Sentence: The first sentence is usually a concise statement of the main idea.
Notice Visual Elements: Pictures, graphs, and other visuals can offer insight and help in understanding complex topics.

Scanning

Scanning is the technique used to search for specific information within a text. It involves swiftly scanning the text using keywords or phrases.

When Scanning

Use Keywords: When scanning, focus on specific keywords or phrases that are relevant to the information you're searching for.
Use Visual Cues: Look for visual cues such as headings, subheadings, or formatting that may indicate the location of the information you need.
Move Quickly: Scan rapidly over the text, concentrating on areas where you expect to find the targeted information.
Don't Read Everything: Avoid the temptation to read the entire text; instead, home in on the key terms or data you're seeking.
Practice Precision: Scan with a specific purpose and stay focused on your goal.

How to Scan

Define Your Purpose: Know what you're looking for.
Use Visual Clues: Focus on headings, formatting changes, and keywords.
Scan Quickly: Move rapidly through the text.
Stay Precise: Concentrate on your target; don't read everything.
Use a Pointer: Physically guide your scanning.
Adapt Your Focus: Be flexible and selective.
Practice: Scanning improves with practice.
Take Notes: Record the found information for later use.

Intensive Reading

Intensive reading involves a deep and focused engagement with the text. This type of reading is often classroom-based and emphasizes a close examination of linguistic and semantic aspects.

Extensive Reading

Extensive reading is characterized by individual, silent reading at a faster pace. It's ideal for broader exposure to a variety of texts.

Critical Reading

Critical reading is an active approach to reading that entails analysis, interpretation, and evaluation of the text's content. It goes beyond surface-level comprehension and involves thinking deeply about the material.

Reading Strategies

Grouping Words: Reading words in groups, both silently and orally, rather than one at a time.
Educated Guesses: Making informed guesses when encountering unfamiliar words or concepts.
Minimizing Dictionary Use: Restricting dictionary usage to only when a word appears multiple times or is crucial for understanding.
Continuous Reading: Avoiding constant interruptions and maintaining reading flow for better comprehension.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is the practice of rephrasing information from an external source in one's own words while preserving the original meaning. It's a valuable skill for summarizing and clarifying complex content.

Summarizing

Skimming the text for an initial overview.
Identifying and underlining the thesis statement, which encapsulates the text's main idea.
Reading the text carefully to highlight key ideas.
Creating a concise summary that condenses the original text.
Thoroughly revising for style, grammar, and punctuation.

SQ3R Method (Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review)

The SQ3R method is a systematic approach to studying texts effectively:

Survey: Begin by surveying the text to get an overall sense of its content, structure, and main topics.
Question: Transform headings into questions to set a purpose for in-depth reading.
Read: Read the relevant sections to answer the questions posed.
Recite: Summarize and recite the answers in your own words to reinforce understanding.
Review: Review the material to consolidate your knowledge and prepare for tests or further discussions.

UNIT IV: Academic Writing

Academic writing is a type of writing that students and scholars use to communicate their ideas and research findings to others. It is characterized by its formality, clarity, objectivity, and use of evidence.

Purpose of Academic Writing

The purpose of academic writing varies depending on the type of assignment, but it generally aims to:

Inform the reader about a particular topic
Analyze or critique a piece of research
Argue for a particular point of view
Synthesize information from multiple sources

Types of Academic Writing

There are many different types of academic writing, including:

Academic essays
Reports
Lab reports
Case studies
Exam responses
Research papers
Dissertations
Theses

Features of Academic Writing

Academic writing is characterized by a number of key features, including:

Formality: Academic writing is typically more formal than everyday writing. This means avoiding contractions (e.g., isn't, aren't, it's), colloquialisms (e.g., guy, kid, mom), and phrasal verbs (e.g., go up, put off, check out).
Clarity: Academic writing should be clear and easy to understand. This means using concise language and avoiding jargon and technical terms unless they are absolutely necessary.
Objectivity: Academic writing should be objective and unbiased. This means avoiding using personal pronouns (e.g., I, me, myself) and making value judgments.
Evidence: Academic writing should be supported by evidence from credible sources. This means citing your sources correctly and using evidence to support your claims.

Academic Argument

Academic argument is a type of writing that aims to persuade the reader to adopt a particular point of view. It is characterized by its use of logical reasoning and evidence to support the writer's claims.

Steps in Writing an Academic Argument

Choose a topic: Choose a topic that you are interested in and that you can support with evidence.
Develop a thesis statement: Your thesis statement is the main point of your argument. It should be clear, concise, and arguable.
Gather evidence: Gather evidence from credible sources to support your thesis statement. This evidence can include facts, statistics, expert opinions, and personal experiences.
Organize your argument: Organize your argument in a logical way. This typically means starting with an introduction that states your thesis statement, followed by a body paragraph for each piece of evidence, and a conclusion that summarizes your main points.
Write your argument: Write your argument in a clear and concise style. Be sure to cite your sources correctly.

UNIT V: Academic Essay

Academic essays are a type of writing that is characterized by its formality, clarity, objectivity, and use of evidence. They are typically used to communicate ideas and research findings to others in a scholarly setting.

Purpose of Academic Essays

The purpose of academic essays can vary depending on the assignment, but they generally aim to:

Inform the reader about a particular topic
Analyze or critique a piece of research
Argue for a particular point of view
Synthesize information from multiple sources

Types of Academic Essays

There are many different types of academic essays, including:

Argumentative essays: These essays present a thesis statement and then use evidence and reasoning to support that thesis.
Expository essays: These essays explain a particular topic or concept.
Analytical essays: These essays break down a complex topic or concept into its component parts and examine them in detail.
Research essays: These essays present the results of original research on a particular topic.

BUG Method

The BUG Method is a simple strategy that can be used to improve the writing process. It consists of the following three steps:

Box: Identify the instructions or keywords in the assignment.
Underline: Underline the keywords and content that is relevant to your assignment.
Glance back: Glance back at your writing to make sure that you have addressed all of the instructions and that your essay is well-organized.

The Writing Process

The writing process is a structured approach that comprises of pre-writing, drafting, revising, proofreading, and publishing stages. The first four stages form a continuous cycle, accommodating new ideas during the revising and editing phase.

The five key steps of the writing process are:

Step 1: Pre-writing In the pre-writing stage:

Select a topic for their essay.
Consider their target audience.
Brainstorm ideas related to the chosen subject.
Compile a list of research areas to explore.
Conduct initial research.

Step 2: Drafting In the drafting stage:

Paraphrase the information gathered during research.
Review the draft to ensure its coherence and logical flow.
Share the draft with others and request feedback.

Step 3: Revising During the revising stage:

Carefully edit and refine the written work.
Incorporate recommendations from others.
Rearrange words or sentences for improved clarity.
Read the writing aloud to ensure smooth flow and coherence.

Step 4: Proofreading In the proofreading stage:

Ensure that all sentences are complete and grammatically correct.
Verify the use of proper grammar and punctuation.
Replace words used incorrectly.
Seek a second set of eyes to review their work.
Make a neat and accurate final copy.

Step 5: Publishing In the publishing stage:

Read their work aloud to a group.
Create a record of their work.
Share a copy with a friend or relative.
Display their writing.

Essay Format

An academic essay adheres to a standardized structure, typically comprising an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

The Introduction

The essay's introduction initiates with a broad and general comment on the subject, with each successive sentence becoming more specific, ultimately leading to the thesis statement. The thesis statement articulates the writer's position on the topic and is usually the final sentence of the introduction. An essay introduction should:

Establish the significance of the subject.
Provide background information to contextualize the essay.
Present the writer's position on the given topic.

The Thesis Statement

The thesis statement, the linchpin of the essay's introduction, signifies the writer's stance on the topic. It should:

Identify the essay's subject.
Articulate the writer's position.
Preview the main points.
Avoid sweeping generalizations. Furthermore, thesis statements should be arguable and substantiable through logical reasoning and appropriate evidence.

The Body

The essay's body comprises a series of paragraphs, with each paragraph requiring a topic sentence to convey its main idea. A topic sentence serves as a point of focus for the paragraph, similar to how the thesis statement guides the entire essay. A topic sentence should specify the paragraph's topic and its particular focus. It serves to delineate the idea to be discussed while also setting boundaries on the discussion.

Features of Topic Sentences

Topic sentences should exhibit the following characteristics:

They are complete sentences, not mere titles.
They combine a topic and a controlling idea.
They are the most general statement in the paragraph.
They establish a clear connection between the paragraph and the thesis statement.

Supporting Details of a Body Paragraph

The supporting details within a body paragraph expand on the topic sentence, incorporating explanations, examples, and illustrations. In academic essays, evidence, in the form of in-text citations, is necessary to substantiate the claims made in the thesis statement.

The Conclusion

The essay's conclusion marks its conclusion, commencing with a concluding phrase and summarizing the key points from the body. It should culminate with a restatement of the thesis statement and should typically represent approximately 10% of the total word count. The conclusion should refrain from introducing new ideas, maintaining focus on the previously discussed content.

UNIT VI: APA Referencing Styles

In the realm of academic writing, the incorporation of ideas and findings from other researchers and writers is a fundamental practice. Students, in their assignments, frequently draw upon the opinions and discoveries of others to substantiate their points. This process demands a crucial component—referencing or citing. Referencing involves providing information about the original source, a practice that is indispensable in maintaining academic integrity.

Referencing Guidelines

The Royal University of Bhutan advocates the use of the sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) as the standard guide for referencing. APA style employs the author/date method of citation, where the author's last name and the publication year are inserted in the actual text of the paper. This style, endorsed by the American Psychological Association and widely utilized in the social sciences, ensures clarity and consistency in acknowledging sources.

Types of Citations in APA Style

The APA style encompasses three main types of citations:

Parenthetical Citations: These involve placing the author's last name and the publication year within parentheses in the text.
Note Citations: This method incorporates additional notes within the text to provide context or supplementary information about the citation.
Numerical Citations: In this approach, numbers are used to reference sources, and a corresponding numbered list is provided at the end of the document.

Types of Referencing

Two main types of referencing are prevalent in academic writing:

APA (American Psychological Association): Widely used in disciplines such as Education, Psychology, and Sciences, APA style emphasizes clarity and precision in source attribution.
MLA (Modern Language Association): Commonly applied in the Humanities, MLA style follows a distinct set of guidelines for citing sources, offering an alternative approach to referencing.

Purposes of Using Citations

The act of citing sources in academic writing serves multiple essential purposes:

Acknowledgment of Source: Citing sources is a fundamental practice to recognize the utilization of another writer's words or ideas. Failure to do so constitutes plagiarism, a breach of academic integrity.
Supporting Statements with Evidence: Citations demonstrate that statements or arguments made by students are substantiated by evidence. This practice allows readers to assess the validity of the evidence presented, showcasing the students' extensive reading and strong evidential support.
Facilitating Source Location: Proper citations enable readers to locate the original source for further information. Providing complete and accurate details of each source becomes crucial for this purpose.

Instances Requiring Citation

Students are advised to provide the source when:

Quoting someone else's words.
Paraphrasing or referring to someone else's ideas or findings.
Using factual data from other sources.
Reprinting a diagram, chart, or other illustration.
Adopting someone else's organizational or presentational approach.
Demonstrating evidence for a statement made.

Critical Evaluation of Resources

Students encountering diverse resources such as books, articles, and websites must discern their authority and appropriateness. Key evaluation criteria include:

Scope: Assessing the breadth of the material to ensure it aligns with expectations.
Audience: Identifying the intended audience to gauge the suitability of the material.
Timeliness: Verifying the publication date or last update of a source to avoid outdated information.
Scholarly vs. Popularity: Distinguishing between scholarly journals, known for expert-reviewed content, and popular magazines, which may lack the rigor of peer review.
Authority: Investigating the author's credentials and background to establish credibility.
Objectivity: Analyzing the author's point of view and potential biases to understand the context.
Primary vs. Secondary Research: Determining whether a resource presents original research (primary) or compiles/evaluates existing material (secondary).

Referencing and Academic Integrity

Referencing stands as a cornerstone of academic integrity, encompassing attributes like honesty, trust, and personal responsibility. Failure to adhere to referencing standards can result in penalties for academic dishonesty.

Understanding Plagiarism and Consequences

Plagiarism, defined as the unacknowledged use of another's work as one's own, entails severe consequences. Actions constituting plagiarism include stealing ideas, using others' work without proper credit, committing literary theft, and presenting existing ideas as new and original. Consequences at the Royal University of Bhutan (RUB) may range from grade reduction to receiving a zero grade, contingent on the severity of the plagiarism detected.

Direct and Indirect Voices in APA Style

The APA style recommends a clear distinction between the writer's own 'voice' and the voices of the sources used. This separation ensures transparency in attributing ideas and maintaining clarity in scholarly communication.

APA In-text Citation:

Direct Voice

In direct voice citations, the author's last name, year of publication, and page number or paragraph number are included. The author's exact words should be enclosed in quotation marks.

Example: Smiley (2006, p. 56) claims that "the mechanics of referencing are secondary, it is the fact of referencing that matters."
OR
According to Smiley, "the mechanics of referencing are secondary, it is the fact of referencing that matters" (2006, p. 56).

APA In-Text Citation:

Indirect Voice

In indirect voice citations, the author's last name, year of publication, and optional page number are provided.

Example: Smiley (2006, p. 56) asserts that the fact a writer attempts to reference is more important than whether their referencing is technically correct.
OR
According to Smiley (2006), the mechanical aspects of referencing are less important than the attempt to reference.

Citing Different Types of Authored Sources

When a source has two authors, both names are mentioned in the signal phrase or brackets, separated by "and" within the text and an ampersand in brackets.
- Example: Research by Wegener and Petty (1994) supports... or (Wegener & Petty, 1994).
For sources with three to seven authors, list all names in the signal phrase or brackets for the first citation and use "et al." for subsequent citations.
- Example: (Kernis, Cornell, Sun, Berry, & Harlow, 1993) and later (Kernis et al., 1993).
If a work has no author, use the title in the signal phrase or the first word or two in brackets.
- Example: A similar study was done on students learning to format research papers ("Using APA," 2001).
When citing an organization or government agency, mention the organization in the signal phrase or parenthetical citation, with the abbreviation in brackets for subsequent citations.
- Example: According to the American Psychological Association (APA, 2000) and later (APA, 2000).
When citing multiple works in a bracketed citation, order them as they appear in the reference list, separated by a semi-colon.
- Example: (Berndt, 2002; Harlow, 1983).
Use first initials with last names to avoid confusion, especially with the same last names.
- Example: (E. Johnson, 2001; L. Johnson, 1998).
If there are two sources by the same author in the same year, differentiate them with lowercase letters in the reference list and in-text citation.
- Example: Research by Berndt (1981a) illustrated that...

Secondary Sources and Other Considerations

When using a secondary source, name the original source in the signal phrase and list the secondary source in references and brackets.
- Example: Johnson (1990) argued that... (as cited in Smith, 2003, p. 102) or (Johnson, 1990, as cited in Smith, 2003, p. 102).
Use "n.d." for 'no date' when the publication date is unavailable.
- Example: Smith (n.d.) explained that...
If a website lacks a named author, use the organization as the author.
- Example: According to the Royal University of Bhutan (2018),...

Writing References

Basic Rules for Writing References

References should be at the paper's end, alphabetically ordered by authors' last names.
Double-space the references, start on a new page, and use hanging indentation.
Authors' names are inverted, and for works with three to seven authors, list all names. If more than seven, list the first six followed by ellipses and the last author's name.
If citing multiple works by the same author, arrange them chronologically.

Capitalization and Italics

Capitalize only the first letter of the first word, subtitle, first word after a colon, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the second word in a hyphenated compound word.

Preparing References for Different Sources

Books:

Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991). APA guide to preparing manuscripts for journal publication. American Psychological Association.

Edited Book:

Duncan, G. J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.). (1997). Consequences of growing up poor. Russell Safe Foundation.

Translated Book:

Laplace, P. S. (1951). A philosophical essay on probabilities (F. W. Truscott & F. L. Emory, Trans.). New York, NY: Dover. (Original work published 1814).

Book with No Author:

New concise world atlas. (2007). London. Oxford University Press.

Chapter in an Edited Book:

O'Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and women's gender role journeys:
Metaphor for healing, transition, and transformation. In B. R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across the life cycle (pp. 107-123). New York, NY: Springer.

Multivolume Work:

Wiener, P. (Ed.). (1973). Dictionary of the history of ideas (Vols. 1-4). New York, NY: Scribner's.

Journal Article:

Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896.

Newspaper Article:

Schultz, S. (2005, December 28). Calls made to strengthen state energy policies. The Country Today, pp. 1-2.

Magazine Article:

Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.

Online Journal Article with DOI:

Brownlie, D. (2007). Toward effective poster presentations: An annotated bibliography. European Journal of Marketing, 41(11/12), 1245-1283. doi:10.1108/03090560710821161

Online Journal Article without DOI:

Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature of human rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 8. Retrieved from http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html

Online Book:

De Huff, E. W. (n.d.). Taytay’s tales: Traditional Pueblo Indian tales. Retrieved from http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/dehuff/taytay/taytay.html

Online Newspaper Article:

Parker-Pope, T. (2008, May 6). Psychiatry handbook linked to drug industry. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com

APA Paper Layout

Maintain double spacing, use 12-point Times New Roman font, and number pages consecutively in the upper right corner.
Include a page header on every page with the title of the paper on the left and page numbers on the right.
The cover page should follow college-specific guidelines.

UNIT VII: Oral Presentation

Basics of Oral Presentations

~ Oral presentations are integral to university teaching and learning.

~ Students frequently present, argue, and justify ideas during classes and seminars.

~ Basic skills are essential for effective presentations.

Reasons for Bad Presentations:

~ Not prepared

~ Fear of large crowds

~ Lack of confidence

~ Low self-esteem

Good Preparation is Crucial:

~ Key to confidence

~ Leads to a relaxed and successful presentation

Speaking - Key Points:

~ Pitch-tone

~ Pace - speak slowly

~ Pause - at the end of a sentence

Positive Body Language:

Proper use of the stage
Hand movement
Avoiding odd positions (e.g., being too humble)
Balancing confidence
Good facial expression
Avoiding reading or reciting

How to Use Notes:

~ Notes are for reminding specific words and quotes.

~ Avoid reading the entire notes during the presentation.

Presentation Structure:

~ Introduction, body, and conclusion are essential components.

Strategies for Preparing Effective Presentations

Initial Steps:
- Define the goal of the presentation
- Understand the audience's background knowledge
- Consider the audience's expectations
Preparation Steps:
- Brainstorm the topic and create a rough outline
- Research the topic
- Organize material and write a draft
- Manage the allotted time
- Summarize the draft for PowerPoint and cue cards
- Plan and prepare visual aids
Rehearsal:
- Practice the presentation
- Ensure the presentation length is appropriate
- Have a friend listen and time the presentation

Signposting in Presentations

Use clear and logical order
Highlight or repeat key points
Employ 'signposts' to guide the audience through the presentation

Presentation Aids: Tips and Guidelines

Preparing Presentation Aids:
- Keep the design simple
- Use black font on a white background
- Limit pictures and diagrams
- Ensure visible and clear fonts
- Connect aids to the presentation
- Avoid excessive decorations
- Use bullet points in PowerPoint slides